Crashes

A stock market crash is often defined as a sharp dip in share prices of equities listed on the stock exchanges. In parallel with various economic factors, a reason for stock market crashes is also due to panic and investing public's loss of comfidence. Often, stock market crashes end speculative economic bubbles.

There have been famous stock market crashes that have ended in the loss of billions of dollars and wealth destruction on a massive scale. An increasing number of people are involved in the stock market, especially since the social security and retirement plans are being increasingly privatized and linked to stocks and bonds and other elements of the market. There have been a number of famous stock market crashes like the Wall Street Crash of 1929, the stock market crash of 1973–4, the Black Monday of 1987, the Dot-com bubble of 2000, and the Stock Market Crash of 2008.

One of the most famous stock market crashes started October 24, 1929 on Black Thursday. The Dow Jones Industrial lost 50% during this stock market crash. It was the beginning of the Great Depression. Another famous crash took place on October 19, 1987 – Black Monday. On Black Monday itself, the Dow Jones fell by 22.6% after completing a 5 year continuous rise in share prices. This event not only shook the USA, but quickly spread across the world. Thus, by the end of October, stock exchanges in Australia lost 41.8%, in Canada lost 22.5%, in Hong Kong lost 45.8%, and in Great Britain lost 26.4%. The names “Black Monday” and “Black Tuesday” are also used for October 28-29, 1929, which followed Terrible Thursday--the starting day of the stock market crash in 1929. The crash in 1987 raised some puzzles-–main news and events did not predict the catastrophe and visible reasons for the collapse were not identified. This event raised questions about many important assumptions of modern economics, namely, the theory of rational human conduct, the theory of market equilibrium and the hypothesis of market efficiency. For some time after the crash, trading in stock exchanges worldwide was halted, since the exchange computers did not perform well owing to enormous quantity of trades being received at one time. This halt in trading allowed the Federal Reserve system and central banks of other countries to take measures to control the spreading of worldwide financial crisis. In the United States the SEC introduced several new measures of control into the stock market in an attempt to prevent a re-occurrence of the events of Black Monday. Computer systems were upgraded in the stock exchanges to handle larger trading volumes in a more accurate and controlled manner. The SEC modified the margin requirements in an attempt to lower the volatility of common stocks, stock options and the futures market. The New York Stock Exchange and the Chicago Mercantile Exchange introduced the concept of a circuit breaker. The circuit breaker halts trading if the Dow declines a prescribed number of points for a prescribed amount of time.

The behavior of the stock market

From experience we know that investors may 'temporarily' move financial prices away from their long term aggregate price 'trends'. (Positive or up trends are referred to as bull markets; negative or down trends are referred to as bear markets.) Over-reactions may occur—so that excessive optimism (euphoria) may drive prices unduly high or excessive pessimism may drive prices unduly low. New theoretical and empirical arguments have since been put forward against the notion that financial markets are 'generally' efficient (i.e., in the sense that stock prices in the aggregate tend to follow a Gaussian distribution).

According to the efficient market hypothesis (EMH), only changes in fundamental factors, such as the outlook for margins, profits or dividends, ought to affect share prices beyond the short term, where random 'noise' in the system may prevail. (But this largely theoretic academic viewpoint—known as 'hard' EMH—also predicts that little or no trading should take place, contrary to fact, since prices are already at or near equilibrium, having priced in all public knowledge.) The 'hard' efficient-market hypothesis is sorely tested by such events as the stock market crash in 1987, when the Dow Jones index plummeted 22.6 percent—the largest-ever one-day fall in the United States. This event demonstrated that share prices can fall dramatically even though, to this day, it is impossible to fix a generally agreed upon definite cause: a thorough search failed to detect any 'reasonable' development that might have accounted for the crash. (But note that such events are predicted to occur strictly by chance , although very rarely.) It seems also to be the case more generally that many price movements (beyond that which are predicted to occur 'randomly') are not occasioned by new information; a study of the fifty largest one-day share price movements in the United States in the post-war period seems to confirm this.

However, a 'soft' EMH has emerged which does not require that prices remain at or near equilibrium, but only that market participants not be able to systematically profit from any momentary market 'inefficiencies'. Moreover, while EMH predicts that all price movement (in the absence of change in fundamental information) is random (i.e., non-trending), many studies have shown a marked tendency for the stock market to trend over time periods of weeks or longer. Various explanations for such large and apparently non-random price movements have been promulgated. For instance, some research has shown that changes in estimated risk, and the use of certain strategies, such as stop-loss limits and Value at Risk limits, theoretically could cause financial markets to overreact. But the best explanation seems to be that the distribution of stock market prices is non-Gaussian (in which case EMH, in any of its current forms, would not be strictly applicable).

Other research has shown that psychological factors may result in exaggerated (statistically anomalous) stock price movements (contrary to EMH which assumes such behaviors 'cancel out'). Psychological research has demonstrated that people are predisposed to 'seeing' patterns, and often will perceive a pattern in what is, in fact, just noise. (Something like seeing familiar shapes in clouds or ink blots.) In the present context this means that a succession of good news items about a company may lead investors to overreact positively (unjustifiably driving the price up). A period of good returns also boosts the investor's self-confidence, reducing his (psychological) risk threshold.

Another phenomenon—also from psychology—that works against an objective assessment is group thinking. As social animals, it is not easy to stick to an opinion that differs markedly from that of a majority of the group. An example with which one may be familiar is the reluctance to enter a restaurant that is empty; people generally prefer to have their opinion validated by those of others in the group.

In one paper the authors draw an analogy with gambling.[9] In normal times the market behaves like a game of roulette; the probabilities are known and largely independent of the investment decisions of the different players. In times of market stress, however, the game becomes more like poker (herding behavior takes over). The players now must give heavy weight to the psychology of other investors and how they are likely to react psychologically.

The stock market, as any other business, is quite unforgiving of amateurs. Inexperienced investors rarely get the assistance and support they need. In the period running up to the 1987 crash, less than 1 percent of the analyst's recommendations had been to sell (and even during the 2000 - 2002 bear market, the average did not rise above 5%). In the run up to 2000, the media amplified the general euphoria, with reports of rapidly rising share prices and the notion that large sums of money could be quickly earned in the so-called new economy stock market. (And later amplified the gloom which descended during the 2000 - 2002 bear market, so that by summer of 2002, predictions of a DOW average below 5000 were quite common.)

Irrational behavior

Sometimes the market seems to react irrationally to economic or financial news, even if that news is likely to have no real effect on the technical value of securities itself. But this may be more apparent than real, since often such news has been anticipated, and a counterreaction may occur if the news is better (or worse) than expected. Therefore, the stock market may be swayed in either direction by press releases, rumors, euphoria and mass panic; but generally only briefly, as more experienced investors (especially the hedge funds) quickly rally to take advantage of even the slightest, momentary hysteria.

Over the short-term, stocks and other securities can be battered or buoyed by any number of fast market-changing events, making the stock market behavior difficult to predict. Emotions can drive prices up and down, people are generally not as rational as they think, and the reasons for buying and selling are generally obscure. Behaviorists argue that investors often behave 'irrationally' when making investment decisions thereby incorrectly pricing securities, which causes market inefficiencies, which, in turn, are opportunities to make money[10]. However, the whole notion of EMH is that these non-rational reactions to information cancel out, leaving the prices of stocks rationally determined.

The Dow Jones Industrial Average biggest gain in one day was 936.42 points or 11 percent, this occurred on October 13, 2008.

Importance of stock market

Function and purpose

The stock market is one of the most important sources for companies to raise money. This allows businesses to be publicly traded, or raise additional capital for expansion by selling shares of ownership of the company in a public market. The liquidity that an exchange provides affords investors the ability to quickly and easily sell securities. This is an attractive feature of investing in stocks, compared to other less liquid investments such as real estate.

History has shown that the price of shares and other assets is an important part of the dynamics of economic activity, and can influence or be an indicator of social mood. An economy where the stock market is on the rise is considered to be an up and coming economy. In fact, the stock market is often considered the primary indicator of a country's economic strength and development. Rising share prices, for instance, tend to be associated with increased business investment and vice versa. Share prices also affect the wealth of households and their consumption. Therefore, central banks tend to keep an eye on the control and behavior of the stock market and, in general, on the smooth operation of financial system functions. Financial stability is the raison d'être of central banks.

Exchanges also act as the clearinghouse for each transaction, meaning that they collect and deliver the shares, and guarantee payment to the seller of a security. This eliminates the risk to an individual buyer or seller that the counterparty could default on the transaction.

The smooth functioning of all these activities facilitates economic growth in that lower costs and enterprise risks promote the production of goods and services as well as employment. In this way the financial system contributes to increased prosperity.

Relation of the stock market to the modern financial system

The financial system in most western countries has undergone a remarkable transformation. One feature of this development is disintermediation. A portion of the funds involved in saving and financing flows directly to the financial markets instead of being routed via the traditional bank lending and deposit operations. The general public's heightened interest in investing in the stock market, either directly or through mutual funds, has been an important component of this process. Statistics show that in recent decades shares have made up an increasingly large proportion of households' financial assets in many countries. In the 1970s, in Sweden, deposit accounts and other very liquid assets with little risk made up almost 60 percent of households' financial wealth, compared to less than 20 percent in the 2000s. The major part of this adjustment in financial portfolios has gone directly to shares but a good deal now takes the form of various kinds of institutional investment for groups of individuals, e.g., pension funds, mutual funds, hedge funds, insurance investment of premiums, etc. The trend towards forms of saving with a higher risk has been accentuated by new rules for most funds and insurance, permitting a higher proportion of shares to bonds. Similar tendencies are to be found in other industrialized countries. In all developed economic systems, such as the European Union, the United States, Japan and other developed nations, the trend has been the same: saving has moved away from traditional (government insured) bank deposits to more risky securities of one sort or another.

The stock market, individual investors, and financial risk

Riskier long-term saving requires that an individual possess the ability to manage the associated increased risks. Stock prices fluctuate widely, in marked contrast to the stability of (government insured) bank deposits or bonds. This is something that could affect not only the individual investor or household, but also the economy on a large scale. The following deals with some of the risks of the financial sector in general and the stock market in particular. This is certainly more important now that so many newcomers have entered the stock market, or have acquired other 'risky' investments (such as 'investment' property, i.e., real estate and collectables).

With each passing year, the noise level in the stock market rises. Television commentators, financial writers, analysts, and market strategists are all overtaking each other to get investors' attention. At the same time, individual investors, immersed in chat rooms and message boards, are exchanging questionable and often misleading tips. Yet, despite all this available information, investors find it increasingly difficult to profit. Stock prices skyrocket with little reason, then plummet just as quickly, and people who have turned to investing for their children's education and their own retirement become frightened. Sometimes there appears to be no rhyme or reason to the market, only folly.

This is a quote from the preface to a published biography about the long-term value-oriented stock investor Warren Buffett.[4] Buffett began his career with $100, and $105,000 from seven limited partners consisting of Buffett's family and friends. Over the years he has built himself a multi-billion-dollar fortune. The quote illustrates some of what has been happening in the stock market during the end of the 20th century and the beginning of the 21st century.

Trading

Participants in the stock market range from small individual stock investors to large hedge fund traders, who can be based anywhere. Their orders usually end up with a professional at a stock exchange, who executes the order.

Some exchanges are physical locations where transactions are carried out on a trading floor, by a method known as open outcry. This type of auction is used in stock exchanges and commodity exchanges where traders may enter "verbal" bids and offers simultaneously. The other type of stock exchange is a virtual kind, composed of a network of computers where trades are made electronically via traders.

Actual trades are based on an auction market model where a potential buyer bids a specific price for a stock and a potential seller asks a specific price for the stock. (Buying or selling at market means you will accept any ask price or bid price for the stock, respectively.) When the bid and ask prices match, a sale takes place on a first come first served basis if there are multiple bidders or askers at a given price.

The purpose of a stock exchange is to facilitate the exchange of securities between buyers and sellers, thus providing a marketplace (virtual or real). The exchanges provide real-time trading information on the listed securities, facilitating price discovery.
New York Stock Exchange.

The New York Stock Exchange is a physical exchange, also referred to as a listed exchange — only stocks listed with the exchange may be traded. Orders enter by way of exchange members and flow down to a floor broker, who goes to the floor trading post specialist for that stock to trade the order. The specialist's job is to match buy and sell orders using open outcry. If a spread exists, no trade immediately takes place--in this case the specialist should use his/her own resources (money or stock) to close the difference after his/her judged time. Once a trade has been made the details are reported on the "tape" and sent back to the brokerage firm, which then notifies the investor who placed the order. Although there is a significant amount of human contact in this process, computers play an important role, especially for so-called "program trading".

The NASDAQ is a virtual listed exchange, where all of the trading is done over a computer network. The process is similar to the New York Stock Exchange. However, buyers and sellers are electronically matched. One or more NASDAQ market makers will always provide a bid and ask price at which they will always purchase or sell 'their' stock.

The Paris Bourse, now part of Euronext, is an order-driven, electronic stock exchange. It was automated in the late 1980s. Prior to the 1980s, it consisted of an open outcry exchange. Stockbrokers met on the trading floor or the Palais Brongniart. In 1986, the CATS trading system was introduced, and the order matching process was fully automated.

From time to time, active trading (especially in large blocks of securities) have moved away from the 'active' exchanges. Securities firms, led by UBS AG, Goldman Sachs Group Inc. and Credit Suisse Group, already steer 12 percent of U.S. security trades away from the exchanges to their internal systems. That share probably will increase to 18 percent by 2010 as more investment banks bypass the NYSE and NASDAQ and pair buyers and sellers of securities themselves, according to data compiled by Boston-based Aite Group LLC, a brokerage-industry consultant[citation needed].

Now that computers have eliminated the need for trading floors like the Big Board's, the balance of power in equity markets is shifting. By bringing more orders in-house, where clients can move big blocks of stock anonymously, brokers pay the exchanges less in fees and capture a bigger share of the $11 billion a year that institutional investors pay in trading commissions[citation needed].

Market participants

A few decades ago, worldwide, buyers and sellers were individual investors, such as wealthy businessmen, with long family histories (and emotional ties) to particular corporations. Over time, markets have become more "institutionalized"; buyers and sellers are largely institutions (e.g., pension funds, insurance companies, mutual funds, index funds, exchange-traded funds, hedge funds, investor groups, banks and various other financial institutions). The rise of the institutional investor has brought with it some improvements in market operations. Thus, the government was responsible for "fixed" (and exorbitant) fees being markedly reduced for the 'small' investor, but only after the large institutions had managed to break the brokers' solid front on fees. (They then went to 'negotiated' fees, but only for large institutions.[citation needed])

However, corporate governance (at least in the West) has been very much adversely affected by the rise of (largely 'absentee') institutional 'owners'.

Stock market

A stock market is a public market for the trading of company stock and derivatives at an agreed price; these are securities listed on a stock exchange as well as those only traded privately.

The size of the world stock market was estimated at about $36.6 trillion US at the beginning of October 2008.The total world derivatives market has been estimated at about $791 trillion face or nominal value, 11 times the size of the entire world economy. The value of the derivatives market, because it is stated in terms of notional values, cannot be directly compared to a stock or a fixed income security, which traditionally refers to an actual value. Moreover, the vast majority of derivatives 'cancel' each other out (i.e., a derivative 'bet' on an event occurring is offset by a comparable derivative 'bet' on the event not occurring.). Many such relatively illiquid securities are valued as marked to model, rather than an actual market price.

The stocks are listed and traded on stock exchanges which are entities of a corporation or mutual organization specialized in the business of bringing buyers and sellers of the organizations to a listing of stocks and securities together. The stock market in the United States includes the trading of all securities listed on the NYSE Euronext, the NASDAQ, the Amex, as well as on the many regional exchanges, e.g. OTCBB and Pink Sheets. European examples of stock exchanges include the London Stock Exchange, the Deutsche Börse.

what is financial market

Definition

In economics, typically, the term market means the aggregate of possible buyers and sellers of a thing and the transactions between them.

The term "market" is sometimes used for what are more strictly exchanges, organizations that facilitate the trade in financial securities, e.g., a stock exchange or commodity exchange. This may be a physical location (like the NYSE) or an electronic system (like NASDAQ). Much trading of stocks takes place on an exchange; still, corporate actions (merger, spinoff) are outside an exchange, while any two companies or people, for whatever reason, may agree to sell stock from the one to the other without using an exchange.

Trading of currencies and bonds is largely on a bilateral basis, although some bonds trade on a stock exchange, and people are building electronic systems for these as well, similar to stock exchanges.

Financial markets can be domestic or they can be international.


Types of financial markets

The financial markets can be divided into different subtypes:

* Capital markets which consist of:
o Stock markets, which provide financing through the issuance of shares or common stock, and enable the subsequent trading thereof.
o Bond markets, which provide financing through the issuance of bonds, and enable the subsequent trading thereof.
* Commodity markets, which facilitate the trading of commodities.
* Money markets, which provide short term debt financing and investment.
* Derivatives markets, which provide instruments for the management of financial risk.
o Futures markets, which provide standardized forward contracts for trading products at some future date; see also forward market.
* Insurance markets, which facilitate the redistribution of various risks.
* Foreign exchange markets, which facilitate the trading of foreign exchange.

The capital markets consist of primary markets and secondary markets. Newly formed (issued) securities are bought or sold in primary markets. Secondary markets allow investors to sell securities that they hold or buy existing securities.


To understand financial markets, let us look at what they are used for, i.e. what is their purpose?

Without financial markets, borrowers would have difficulty finding lenders themselves. Intermediaries such as banks help in this process. Banks take deposits from those who have money to save. They can then lend money from this pool of deposited money to those who seek to borrow. Banks popularly lend money in the form of loans and mortgages.

More complex transactions than a simple bank deposit require markets where lenders and their agents can meet borrowers and their agents, and where existing borrowing or lending commitments can be sold on to other parties. A good example of a financial market is a stock exchange. A company can raise money by selling shares to investors and its existing shares can be bought or sold.

The following table illustrates where financial markets fit in the relationship between lenders and borrowers:
Relationship between lenders and borrowers
Lenders Financial Intermediaries Financial Markets Borrowers
Individuals
Companies Banks
Insurance Companies
Pension Funds
Mutual Funds
Interbank
Stock Exchange
Money Market
Bond Market
Foreign Exchange Individuals
Companies
Central Government
Municipalities
Public Corporations

Financial market

In economics, a financial market is a mechanism that allows people to easily buy and sell (trade) financial securities (such as stocks and bonds), commodities (such as precious metals or agricultural goods), and other fungible items of value at low transaction costs and at prices that reflect the efficient-market hypothesis.

Financial markets have evolved significantly over several hundred years and are undergoing constant innovation to improve liquidity.

Both general markets (where many commodities are traded) and specialized markets (where only one commodity is traded) exist. Markets work by placing many interested buyers and sellers in one "place", thus making it easier for them to find each other. An economy which relies primarily on interactions between buyers and sellers to allocate resources is known as a market economy in contrast either to a command economy or to a non-market economy such as a gift economy.

In finance, financial markets facilitate –

* The raising of capital (in the capital markets);
* The transfer of risk (in the derivatives markets);
* International trade (in the currency markets)

– and are used to match those who want capital to those who have it.

Typically a borrower issues a receipt to the lender promising to pay back the capital. These receipts are securities which may be freely bought or sold. In return for lending money to the borrower, the lender will expect some compensation in the form of interest or dividends.

In mathematical finance, the concept of a financial market is defined in terms of a continuous-time Brownian motion stochastic process.

Finance

Finance is the science of funds management.[1] The general areas of finance are business finance, personal finance, and public finance.[2] Finance includes saving money and often includes lending money. The field of finance deals with the concepts of time, money and risk and how they are interrelated. It also deals with how money is spent and budgeted.

Finance works most basically through individuals and business organizations depositing money in a bank. The bank then lends the money out to other individuals or corporations for consumption or investment, and charges interest on the loans.

Loans have become increasingly packaged for resale, meaning that an investor buys the loan (debt) from a bank or directly from a corporation. Bonds are debt sold directly to investors from corporations, while that investor can then hold the debt and collect the interest or sell the debt on a secondary market. Banks are the main facilitators of funding through the provision of credit, although private equity, mutual funds, hedge funds, and other organizations have become important as they invest in various forms of debt. Financial assets, known as investments, are financially managed with careful attention to financial risk management to control financial risk. Financial instruments allow many forms of securitized assets to be traded on securities exchanges such as stock exchanges, including debt such as bonds as well as equity in publicly-traded corporations.[dubious – discuss]

Central banks act as lenders of last resort and control the money supply, which affects the interest rates charged. As money supply increases, interest rates decrease.


The main techniques and sectors of the financial industry


An entity whose income exceeds their expenditure can lend or invest the excess income. On the other hand, an entity whose income is less than its expenditure can raise capital by borrowing or selling equity claims, decreasing its expenses, or increasing its income. The lender can find a borrower, a financial intermediary such as a bank, or buy notes or bonds in the bond market. The lender receives interest, the borrower pays a higher interest than the lender receives, and the financial intermediary pockets the difference.

A bank aggregates the activities of many borrowers and lenders. A bank accepts deposits from lenders, on which it pays the interest. The bank then lends these deposits to borrowers. Banks allow borrowers and lenders, of different sizes, to coordinate their activity. Banks are thus compensators of money flows in space.

A specific example of corporate finance is the sale of stock by a company to institutional investors like investment banks, who in turn generally sell it to the public. The stock gives whoever owns it part ownership in that company. If you buy one share of XYZ Inc, and they have 100 shares outstanding (held by investors), you are 1/100 owner of that company. Of course, in return for the stock, the company receives cash, which it uses to expand its business; this process is known as "equity financing". Equity financing mixed with the sale of bonds (or any other debt financing) is called the company's capital structure.

Finance is used by individuals (personal finance), by governments (public finance), by businesses (corporate finance), as well as by a wide variety of organizations including schools and non-profit organizations. In general, the goals of each of the above activities are achieved through the use of appropriate financial instruments and methodologies, with consideration to their institutional setting.

Finance is one of the most important aspects of business management. Without proper financial planning a new enterprise is unlikely to be successful. Managing money (a liquid asset) is essential to ensure a secure future, both for the individual and an organization.

Mortgage modification

Mortgage modification is a process where the terms of a mortgage are modified outside the original terms of the contract agreed to by the lender and borrower (i.e mortgagor and mortgagee). In general, any loan can be modified.

Background

In the normal progression of a mortgage, payments of interest and principal are made until the mortgage is paid in full (or paid-off). Typically, until the mortgage is paid, the lender holds a lien on the property and if the borrower sells the property before the mortgage is paid-off, the unpaid balance of the mortgage is remitted to the lender to release the lien. Generally speaking, any change to the mortgage terms is a modification, but as the term is used it refers to a change in terms based upon either the specific inability of the borrower to remain current on payments as stated in the mortgage[1], or more generally government mandate to lenders.

Types of modification

Mortgages are modified to the benefit of the borrower in one or more of the following ways:

* Reduction in interest rate, or a change from a floating to a fixed rate, or in how the floating rate is computed
* Reduction in principal
* Reduction in late fees or other penalties
* Lengthening of the loan term
* Capping the monthly payment to a percentage of household income

The borrower can be current, late, in default, in bankruptcy, or in foreclosure at the time the application for modification is made. The programs available will vary accordingly.

There may be modifications made at the discretion of the lender. The lender is motivated to offer better terms to the borrower because of the expectation that the borrower might be able to afford a lower payment, and that a performing loan (i.e. one in which payments are current) will be more valuable ultimately than the proceeds obtained from a foreclosure sale.[2]

The state and federal government may structure a mortgage modification program as voluntary on the part of the lender, but may provide incentives for the lender to participate. A mandatory mortgage modification program requires the lender to modify mortgages meeting the criteria with respect to the borrower, the property, and the loan payment history.

Loan

A loan is a type of debt. Like all debt instruments, a loan entails the redistribution of financial assets over time, between the lender and the borrower.

In a loan, the borrower initially receives or borrows an amount of money, called the principal, from the lender, and is obligated to pay back or repay an equal amount of money to the lender at a later time. Typically, the money is paid back in regular installments, or partial repayments; in an annuity, each installment is the same amount. The loan is generally provided at a cost, referred to as interest on the debt, which provides an incentive for the lender to engage in the loan. In a legal loan, each of these obligations and restrictions is enforced by contract, which can also place the borrower under additional restrictions known as loan covenants. Although this article focuses on monetary loans, in practice any material object might be lent.

Acting as a provider of loans is one of the principal tasks for financial institutions. For other institutions, issuing of debt contracts such as bonds is a typical source of funding

Mortgage

A mortgage is the transfer of an interest in property (or the equivalent in law - a charge) to a lender as a security for a debt - usually a loan of money. While a mortgage in itself is not a debt, it is the lender's security for a debt. It is a transfer of an interest in land (or the equivalent) from the owner to the mortgage lender, on the condition that this interest will be returned to the owner when the terms of the mortgage have been satisfied or performed. In other words, the mortgage is a security for the loan that the lender makes to the borrower.

This comes from the Old French "dead pledge," apparently meaning that the pledge ends (dies) either when the obligation is fulfilled or the property is taken through foreclosure.^[1]

In most jurisdictions mortgages are strongly associated with loans secured on real estate rather than on other property (such as ships) and in some jurisdictions only land may be mortgaged. A mortgage is the standard method by which individuals and businesses can purchase real estate without the need to pay the full value immediately from their own resources. See mortgage loan for residential mortgage lending, and commercial mortgage for lending against commercial property.

The cost to the borrower is measured by the annual percentage rate (APR), which is an effective annual rate of interest and fees paid by the borrower.

In many countries, though not all (Iran and Bali, Indonesia are two exceptions^[2]), it is normal for home purchases to be funded by a mortgage. Few individuals have enough savings or liquid funds to enable them to purchase property outright. In countries where the demand for home ownership is highest, strong domestic markets have developed.

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Canadian Student Loan Program

Canadian Students Studying in the USA

For Canadian students studying or planning to study in the USA, we offer the Canadian Student Loan. Students applying for the Canadian Student Loan will require a US citizen or permanent resident co-signer.

Formerly, we offered the CanHelp loan, which was available with a Canadian co-signer; however, as of April 18, 2008 the CanHelp loan has been discontinued and is no longer available. Instead of the CanHelp, Canadian students can now apply for a Canadian Student Loan for study in the USA.

Canadian students can apply for the loan program by phone, and can borrow up to the cost of attendence for their school. Canadian students are required to have a US Citizen or permanent resident as a co-signer to apply for this loan.

These loans also offer:

• Funds disbursed directly to you
• Loans are accepted at thousands of approved schools
• Competitive interest rates
• No application fees

Learn more about the Canadian Student Loan Program:

The International Student Loan Center Each year over 200,000 Americans study abroad and nearly 600,000 international students come to the USA to study. However, studying abroad often requires financial assistance for extra expenses such as travel, accommodations and materials, which can make it a greater financial commitment. InternationalStudentLoan.com is here to help, by offering a range of international student loans and study abroad loans to international students and Canadian students in the USA and for US Students studying around the world. International Student Loans are available for: International Students US Students This private loan program is available for international students who are planning to study in the USA. More Information | Apply Online Federal and private loan programs are available for US Students who are studying abroad or fully enrolled in a non-US School. More Information | Apply Online Why get an International Student Loan? For the most part, students struggle to fund their international education. Scholarships and grants are always available, but if you are one of the lucky ones to receive one it will still not cover all your expenses. That is where an International Student Loan will help you. Our lender partners offer n o application fees or other out-of-pocket fees and preliminary approval in as little as 15 minutes. Normally, funding is very quick, but currently processing and funding times have slowed down. Interest rates have gone up substantially! We are also experiencing processing and funding delays due to the turmoil in the student loan marketplace. Borrow as little as you can -- make sure you exhaust all other avenues for funding first. Use scholarships, personal and family funds, and any other money you can first. Read more about the Credit Crunch and how it impacts international students. Please take the time to visit and learn more about our international student loans, canadian student loans and us student loans. We also have a dedicated customer support center to help students with your loan application and research - please contact us with any questions.

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Buying a Home After Bankruptcy

If you have filed bankruptcy and are looking for home financing, there is light at the end of the tunnel. There are factors that are very important if you are looking to buy a home with bad credit. The two factors required to get a mortgage loan are verification of the income and the down payment that you can afford.

After filing bankruptcy, most creditors wait at least 2 years after your bankruptcy has been discharged - before they will consider lending you the money. After the two year period is over, you should not have a problem getting your home financed. Actually, you can also get 100% financing if you have paid most of your bills and other dues on time since the discharge of your bankruptcy.

If you don't want to wait till two years after your bankruptcy has been discharged and want to get a mortgage loan sooner than that then your repayments must be perfect. You can not delay your monthly dues and you should also be able to make a little down payment. This will make your case stronger. If you have enough money to make 4-6% of the down payment, this should be enough to get approved.

There are a number of ways to get a down payment for your mortgage loan besides saving the money in the bank. Here a few tips to help you arrange a little down payment:

Borrow some money from your friends or relatives.

Once you have financed your house, you can usually take out a second or even a third mortgage, up to the total value of your house and then, you can start repaying your relatives. Remember that lenders can have a few reservations about where the down payment is coming from and you will be required to disclose this information before you can get your house financed. If you are not totally honest here, it could very well be considered as defrauding a lender and that has its own risks and can cause you serious problems.

Neighborhood Gold/Nehemiah Programs

You can get a lot of help with these are down payment assistance programs. Basically, these programs are there to help the seller in helping you with your down payment.

Receiving a down payment from your seller is an illegal act but, through these programs, it is legal to get down payment assistance from your seller. There are more down payment assistance programs which are more like grants and need not to be repaid or paid by anyone. To find out more about them, you should search the term "down payment assistance" on the internet.

401K Plans

You can also cash out your 401k or some other investment you made and just like in the first example, you can repay yourself with the second or third mortgage after the loan has been closed.

Buying a house after bankruptcy is not impossible anymore. In fact, modern day mortgage industry has made it far easier than ever and it keeps getting easier as our mortgage industry evolves. You can also save a lot of money and also get some extra cash by refinancing your mortgage. You can find more information on how and when to get your mortgage refinanced here on credit and mortgage index and you can also find tools that will help you calculate mortgage refinancing.

Bad Credit Home Improvement Loans

When a bad credit loan borrower applies for a loan, there are good chances that the lender will not easily lend him the money and the borrower will probably face a difficult time and will have to go through hard conditions laid down by the lender/creditor. This of course is the result of the common fact that bad credit means risky business. A person with bad credit history is more likely to not pay the money back than a person with a good credit report.

There are several ways to combat this situation. There are many types of loans and applying for the right kind of loan is the key. In this case, we are talking about specially design bad credit home improvement loans.

Usually, bad credit home improvement loans are approved without credit hassles posed by the creditor. You can use these loans for improving your home for example; you can enlarge the size of your rooms, expand your kitchen and modernize it, redecorating the lounge and adding sofas etc. This increases your home value to a great extent!

Bad credit home improvement loans are specially designed for those people who have credit problems. For instance, a late payment, defaulting on your previous repayment plans and some arrears are only some of the reasons for having a bad credit report. Bad credit home improvement loans are secured loans given against your home. Lenders are mostly comfortable giving secured loans because this means that there is little risk involved. In such case, the loan amount that you’ll get will heavily depend on the value of your home. This means that improving your home and its value will get you approved for borrowing higher amounts and not to mention, your house resale improves drastically.

One of the best advantages of bad credit home improvement loans is that you get a loan with lower interest rates despite bad credit! Another advantage would the repayment duration. With a bad credit home improvement loan, you get easy repayment period starting from 5 years and lasting for as long as 30 years! This means that you can repay the loan depending your monthly repayment ability.

Before you apply for bad credit home improvement loans, make sure that you know your current credit score and if your credit score has hit rock bottom then try to improve it quickly by paying off some of the easy debts. Applying with a respectable credit score will get you better rates.

You can apply for these loans in banks, financial institutions and online loan lenders. Applying online for a bad credit home improvement loan can get you lower interest rates if you compare them with banks. Comparing between different quotes provided by different online resources is a must and is one exercise that will find you lowest interest rate loans for people with bad credit.

Personal loans for unemployed will be either secured or unsecured. Secured personal loans for unemployed require collateral for approval.

There is always a stage in everyone's life called unemployment. The good news is that it is temporary. The bad news is that at times financial situation and you think of ways to fight it off. Fight it out? Why fight if you have personal loan

for unemplo

yed.

You must have gone through similar reactions from people who tell you stories about how grim your situation is and how difficult is to find loans for unemployed. Usually an unemployed little realizing that they can get personal loans. However, this is a cliché that people often led to believe. Personal loans for unemployed have the flexibility to stretch and adapt to the requirement of each unemployed person.

Personal loans for unemployed are devised, of course taking into account their needs. The main concern of the loan lender reimbursement unemployed who thinks that he can not qualify for, because he has no job. An unemployed or visible means of repayment are eligible for a personal loans. Unemployed personal loans have great advantages such as low interest rates, special discounts, flexible repayment terms and the ability to match your budget.

Personal loans for unemployed will be either secured or unsecured. Secured personal loans for unemployed require collateral for approval. There is much equity in your home to get secured personal loans unemployed. Home is most acceptable form of collateral. However, depending on the amount of the loan alternative form of security may be accepted for secured personal loans for unemployed. Unsecured loans for unemployed will be perfect for those who have no clear active listings as security. Unemployed tenants and landlords can apply for unsecured personal loans.

Personal loan repayment will be primarily for the loan lender and should primarily for unemployed too. Repayment of the unemployed personal loans should be planned, together with loan borrowing. Unemployed persons may opt for a fixed or flexible monthly payments. Fixed for the unemployed personal loans will suit who expect a set income each Monday Flexible monthly repayment for personal loans unemployed will benefit those who are suddenly facing unemployment. Flexible monthly payment offers advantages such as the stand-by facility, overdraft and holiday period. With personal loans for unemployed credit unions are willing to defer and accept reduced payments for the moment. If the borrower gains employment, the Credit Union, the new revenue and adjust personal loan can be repaid.

With secured personal loans for unemployed you can borrow £ 5000 - £ 75,000. Unemployed personal loan enables you to 125% of your own value. Reimbursement Procedures may vary from period 5-25 years. Unsecured personal loans will be useful for the loan amount from € 500 - € 25,000.
For more information about no credit check unemployed loans visit http://www.nocreditcheckloansforunemployed.co.uk

loans for nuemployed peoples

Unemployment is a phase of life that most people experience at some point or the other. And when the pocket becomes empty during such times, you feel as if there is a cosmic joke being played on you. Well, the truth is that things are not as bad as they seem. Loans for the unemployed are being provided in the financial industry.

Loans for the unemployed are designed for the convenience for those who no longer have a source of income. They can be availed without much fuss. If you have unemployment benefits, then you will find it even easier to get yourself approved for one. Such benefits might be a disability allowance, redundancy pay or one-income allowance offered by your previous employers. These loans can be taken not only to fund the necessities of life but also recreational activities, buying a car or renovating your home.

There are no hard and fast rules as to whether you should provide collateral or not. If you are willing to, you can take a secured option. This way, you will get a bigger sum of money, a lower interest rate and a longer repayment period- up to 30 years at the most.
Unsecured loans for the unemployed have a loan amount limited to £25000 and a repayment term that lasts up to a maximum period of 10 years only. They are charged an interest rate higher that the secured option. Either way, the option you go for should be based on your requirements and repayment capability.

Loans for the unemployed have the following features:

• Low interest rate
• Repayment in small monthly installments as per your budget
• Flexible repayment options like overdraft, standby facility and holiday period

Loans for the unemployed are made to help you sail through one of the toughest periods that could be faced by anyone. Through their help, life can stay as normal as it ever was.

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The International Student Loan Center

Each year over 200,000 Americans study abroad and nearly 600,000 international students come to the USA to study. However, studying abroad often requires financial assistance for extra expenses such as travel, accommodations and materials, which can make it a greater financial commitment. InternationalStudentLoan.com is here to help, by offering a range of international student loans and study abroad loans to international students and Canadian students in the USA and for US Students studying around the world.

International Student Loans are available for:

International Students	US Students
This private loan program is available for international students who are planning to study in the USA. More Information | Apply Online	Federal and private loan programs are available for US Students who are studying abroad or fully enrolled in a non-US School. More Information | Apply Online

Why get an International Student Loan?

For the most part, students struggle to fund their international education. Scholarships and grants are always available, but if you are one of the lucky ones to receive one it will still not cover all your expenses. That is where an International Student Loan will help you. Our lender partners offer n o application fees or other out-of-pocket fees and preliminary approval in as little as 15 minutes. Normally, funding is very quick, but currently processing and funding times have slowed down.

Interest rates have gone up substantially! We are also experiencing processing and funding delays due to the turmoil in the student loan marketplace. Borrow as little as you can -- make sure you exhaust all other avenues for funding first. Use scholarships, personal and family funds, and any other money you can first. Read more about the Credit Crunch and how it impacts international students.

Please take the time to visit and learn more about our international student loans, canadian student loans and us student loans. We also have a dedicated customer support center to help students with your loan application and research - please contact us with any questions.

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Mortgage

A mortgage is a way to use one's real property, like land, a house, or a building, as a guarantee for a loan to get money. Many people do this to buy the home they use for mortgage: the loan provides them the money to buy the house and the loan is guaranteed by the house.

In a mortgage, there is a debtor and a creditor. The debtor is the owner of the property, while the creditor is the owner of the loan. When the mortgage transaction is made, the debtor gets the money with the loan, and promises to pay the loan. The creditor will receive money back with interest over time (usually in payments made each month by the debtor). If the debtor does not pay the loan, the creditor may take the mortgaged property in place of the loan. This is called foreclosure.

In the 2008 American economic failure, creditors lent money to debtors who could not pay back that money. This lowered housing prices and hurt the economy.

Micro-enterprise

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A microenterprise is a type of small business that is often unregistered and run by a poor individual. Specifically a microenterprise is defined as a business having five or fewer employees and a seed capital of not more than $35,000^{[citation needed]}. Because microenterprises typically have no access to the commercial banking sector, they often rely on "micro-loans" or microcredit in order to be financed. Microfinance institutions often finance these small loans, particularly in the Third World. Those who found microenterprises are usually referred to as entrepreneurs.

The terms microenterprise and microbusiness have the same meaning, though traditionally when referring to a small business financed by microcredit the term microenterprise is used. Similarly when referring to a small, usually legal business that isn't financed by microcredit the term microbusiness is used.

Broadly stated, a micro-business is a business started with as little capital as possible, or less capital than would be usual for a business. More precisely, the term is often used in Australia to refer to a business with a single owner-operator, and no employees.

Commercial finance

In the United States, commercial finance is the function of offering loans to businesses. Commercial financing is generally offered by a bank or other lender. Most commercial banks offer commercial financing, and the loans are either secured by business assets or alternatively can be unsecured, where the lender relies of the cash flows of the business to repay the facility.

Assets used to collatoralize commercial finance loans include:

• Real Estate
• Receivables from invoices
• Equipment or supplies

While qualifying for financing is generally easier for large, well established companies, some small businesses can qualify for commercial financing from the Small Business Administration (SBA).^[1] The SBA may provide either financing or insure a lender who takes a risk on a smaller company to provide commercial finance.

Businesses can also seek the assistance of Commercial finance advisors in the structuring and sourcing of commercial final References

1. ^ Small Business Administration Information on Commercial Finance

See also

Finance

This economics or finance-related article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.

Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commercial_finance"

Categories: Economics and finance stubs | Finance

Microcredit

Microcredit is the extension of very small loans (microloans) to those in poverty designed to spur entrepreneurship. These individuals lack collateral, steady employment and a verifiable credit history and therefore cannot meet even the most minimal qualifications to gain access to traditional credit. Microcredit is a part of microfinance, which is the provision of a wider range of financial services to the very poor.

Microcredit is a financial innovation that is generally considered to have originated with the Grameen Bank in Bangladesh.^[1] In that country, it has successfully enabled extremely impoverished people to engage in self-employment projects that allow them to generate an income and, in many cases, begin to build wealth and exit poverty. Due to the success of microcredit, many in the traditional banking industry have begun to realize that these microcredit borrowers should more correctly be categorized as pre-bankable; thus, microcredit is increasingly gaining credibility in the mainstream finance industry, and many traditional large finance organizations are contemplating microcredit projects as a source of future growth, even though almost everyone in larger development organizations discounted the likelihood of success of microcredit when it was begun. The United Nations declared 2005 the International Year of Microcredit.

insurance

Insurance, in law and economics, is a form of risk management primarily used to hedge against the risk of a contingent loss. Insurance is defined as the equitable transfer of the risk of a loss, from one entity to another, in exchange for a premium, and can be thought of as a guaranteed small loss to prevent a large, possibly devastating loss. An insurer is a company selling the insurance; an insured or policyholder is the person or entity buying the insurance. The insurance rate is a factor used to determine the amount to be charged for a certain amount of insurance coverage, called the premium. Risk management, the practice of appraising and controlling risk, has evolved as a discrete field of study and practice.

LIFE
Life insurance

Life insurance provides a monetary benefit to a decedent's family or other designated beneficiary, and may specifically provide for income to an insured person's family, burial, funeral and other final expenses. Life insurance policies often allow the option of having the proceeds paid to the beneficiary either in a lump sum cash payment or an annuity.

Annuities provide a stream of payments and are generally classified as insurance because they are issued by insurance companies and regulated as insurance and require the same kinds of actuarial and investment management expertise that life insurance requires. Annuities and pensions that pay a benefit for life are sometimes regarded as insurance against the possibility that a retiree will outlive his or her financial resources. In that sense, they are the complement of life insurance and, from an underwriting perspective, are the mirror image of life insurance.

Certain life insurance contracts accumulate cash values, which may be taken by the insured if the policy is surrendered or which may be borrowed against. Some policies, such as annuities and endowment policies, are financial instruments to accumulate or liquidate wealth when it is needed.

In many countries, such as the U.S. and the UK, the tax law provides that the interest on this cash value is not taxable under certain circumstances. This leads to widespread use of life insurance as a tax-efficient method of saving as well as protection in the event of early death.

In U.S., the tax on interest income on life insurance policies and annuities is generally deferred. However, in some cases the benefit derived from tax deferral may be offset by a low return. This depends upon the insuring company, the type of policy and other variables (mortality, market return, etc.). Moreover, other income tax saving vehicles (e.g., IRAs, 401(k) plans, Roth IRAs) may be better alternatives for value accumulation.

Property

Property insurance

This tornado damage to an Illinois home would be considered an "Act of God" for insurance purposes

Property insurance provides protection against risks to property, such as fire, theft or weather damage. This includes specialized forms of insurance such as fire insurance, flood insurance, earthquake insurance, home insurance, inland marine insurance or boiler insurance.

• Automobile insurance, known in the UK as motor insurance, is probably the most common form of insurance and may cover both legal liability claims against the driver and loss of or damage to the insured's vehicle itself. Throughout the United States an auto insurance policy is required to legally operate a motor vehicle on public roads. In some jurisdictions, bodily injury compensation for automobile accident victims has been changed to a no-fault system, which reduces or eliminates the ability to sue for compensation but provides automatic eligibility for benefits. Credit card companies insure against damage on rented cars.
  • Driving School Insurance insurance provides cover for any authorized driver whilst undergoing tuition, cover also unlike other motor policies provides cover for instructor liability where both the pupil and driving instructor are equally liable in the event of a claim.
• Aviation insurance insures against hull, spares, deductibles, hull wear and liability risks.
• Boiler insurance (also known as boiler and machinery insurance or equipment breakdown insurance) insures against accidental physical damage to equipment or machinery.
• Builder's risk insurance insures against the risk of physical loss or damage to property during construction. Builder's risk insurance is typically written on an "all risk" basis covering damage due to any cause (including the negligence of the insured) not otherwise expressly excluded.
• Crop insurance "Farmers use crop insurance to reduce or manage various risks associated with growing crops. Such risks include crop loss or damage caused by weather, hail, drought, frost damage, insects, or disease, for instance."^[11]
• Earthquake insurance is a form of property insurance that pays the policyholder in the event of an earthquake that causes damage to the property. Most ordinary homeowners insurance policies do not cover earthquake damage. Most earthquake insurance policies feature a high deductible. Rates depend on location and the probability of an earthquake, as well as the construction of the home.
• A fidelity bond is a form of casualty insurance that covers policyholders for losses that they incur as a result of fraudulent acts by specified individuals. It usually insures a business for losses caused by the dishonest acts of its employees.
• Flood insurance protects against property loss due to flooding. Many insurers in the U.S. do not provide flood insurance in some portions of the country. In response to this, the federal government created the National Flood Insurance Program which serves as the insurer of last resort.
• Home insurance or homeowners' insurance: See "Property insurance".
• Landlord insurance is specifically designed for people who own properties which they rent out. Most house insurance cover in the U.K will not be valid if the property is rented out therefore landlords must take out this specialist form of home insurance.
• Marine insurance and marine cargo insurance cover the loss or damage of ships at sea or on inland waterways, and of the cargo that may be on them. When the owner of the cargo and the carrier are separate corporations, marine cargo insurance typically compensates the owner of cargo for losses sustained from fire, shipwreck, etc., but excludes losses that can be recovered from the carrier or the carrier's insurance. Many marine insurance underwriters will include "time element" coverage in such policies, which extends the indemnity to cover loss of profit and other business expenses attributable to the delay caused by a covered loss.
• Surety bond insurance is a three party insurance guaranteeing the performance of the principal.
• Terrorism insurance provides protection against any loss or damage caused by terrorist activities.
• Volcano insurance is an insurance that covers volcano damage in Hawaii.
• Windstorm insurance is an insurance covering the damage that can be caused by hurricanes and tropical cyclones.

car loan

A loan is a type of debt. Like all debt instruments, a loan entails the redistribution of financial assets over time, between the lender and the borrower.

In a loan, the borrower initially receives or borrows an amount of money, called the principal, from the lender, and is obligated to pay back or repay an equal amount of money to the lender at a later time. Typically, the money is paid back in regular installments, or partial repayments; in an annuity, each installment is the same amount. The loan is generally provided at a cost, referred to as interest on the debt, which provides an incentive for the lender to engage in the loan. In a legal loan, each of these obligations and restrictions is enforced by contract, which can also place the borrower under additional restrictions known as loan covenants. Although this article focuses on monetary loans, in practice any material object might be lent.

Acting as a provider of loans is one of the principal tasks for financial institutions. For other institutions, issuing of debt contracts such as bonds is a typical source of funding.